It comes from outer space (cosmic), the ground (terrestrial) and even from within our own bodies. The rate at which exposure occurs is important in some cases, especially high-level exposures. If the damage is to reproductive stem cells, the result could be a radiation-induced congenital abnormality. 2) You may not distribute or commercially exploit the content, especially on another website. Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices. The rate of ionization is proportional to the amount of radiation. . Its effects are more pronounced in cells that reproduce rapidly, such as the stomach lining, hair follicles, bone marrow, and embryos. Thus, the range of radiation exposures which are commonly discussed is very large. PUBLIC HEALTH RESPONSE TO RADIOLOGICAL AND NUCLEAR THREATS. Biological Effects of Radiation Deterministic Effects Some effects of ionizing radiation are a function of the effective dose to a particular organ or system. Type of limit. The effective doses listed are approximate, but the list provides a general idea of which exposures are high, which are low, and which are in between. This natural radiation that is always present is known as "background" radiation. It is in the air we breathe, the food we eat, the water we drink and the materials used to build our homes. Certain dense, high atomic number elements (such as lead) can effectively attenuate gamma radiation with thinner material and are used for shielding. 3 The first clue that a person has been exposed to radiation is a change in blood count, which is not surprising since blood cells are the most rapidly reproducing cells in the body. The various biological effects of ionizing radiation. Given the high natural frequency of cancer, it is very difficult to measure the rate of additional cancers caused by ionizing radiation. From biological consequences point of view, it is very important to distinguish between doses received over short and extended periods. Or they may appear several generations later if the genes are recessive. The ability of various kinds of emissions to cause ionization varies greatly, and some particles have almost no tendency to produce ionization. Learn more about health effects of radiation exposure Sign up here for the Radiation and Health Newsletter What is the activity of a sample containing 1.00mg of tritium (a) in Bq and (b) in Ci? These are related by: with RBE approximately 10 for radiation, 2(+) for protons and neutrons, and 1 for and radiation. Genetic effects might include chromosome changes, stillbirths, congenital abnormalities, and infant and childhood mortality. Results sre reported from a study on the comparative biological effects of BETA particles from P/sup 3//sup 2/ and 70 kv x rays on the growth of pea radicles and mitotic function in Vicia faba. cell death or altered metabolism and function. But the NRC does require its licensees to limit exposure to members of the public to 100 mrem (1 mSv) per year above background. Biological effects of radiation and their consequences depends strongly on the level of dose rate obtained. It was discovered, biological effects of any radiation increases with the linear energy transfer (LET). The effects of low doses of radiation occur at the level of the cell, and the results may not be observed for many years. DNA damage could lead too: - death during next division - prevention of division - non-fatal mutation (What?!) Cellular Inhibition of cell division, cell death, transformation to a malignant state Tissue, Organ -Disruption to central nervous system, bone marrow, intestinal tract This list includes exposures below 100 mSv where the linear, no-threshold assumption is used and higher level exposures where this assumption is not valid. Different types of radiation have differing abilities to pass through material (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). Describe the biological impact of ionizing radiation. The information contained in this website is for general information purposes only. Addison-Wesley Pub. When these particles strike and penetrate matter, they produce ions and molecular fragments that are extremely reactive. Other medical procedures make up another 150 mrem or so each year. The effects of radiation depend on the type, energy, and location of the radiation source, and the length of exposure. Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements, Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals, Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry. Radiation dosimeters also measure ionizing radiation and are often used to determine personal radiation exposure. Seeds of Arabidopsis, a plant commonly used in genetic experiments due to its unique features, and Sorghum, a nutrient-packed grain used for food for humans, animal feed and ethanol, are being . They carry a single negative charge. Radon-222 is an emitter with a halflife of 3.82 days. At lower doses, particularly below 50 rad (0.5 Gy), radiation may cause short-term changes in blood chemistry, including the count, structure, and function of various types of blood cells. The effects can be classified into early or deterministic, which have a threshold, and delayed or stochastic, with no threshold. The body is able to repair damage from radiation, chemicals and other hazards. an atom or molecule that bears an unpaired electron. But there are no data to establish a firm link between cancer and doses below about 10,000 mrem (100 mSv 100 times the NRC limit). ISBN-13: 978-3527411764. We can minimize our exposure by blocking or shielding the radiation, moving farther from the source, and limiting the time of exposure. The type of radiation discussed in this chapter is exclusively ionizing radiation, the type used for the treatment of cancer. We are constantly exposed to background radiation from a variety of natural sources, including cosmic radiation, rocks, medical procedures, consumer products, and even our own atoms. Given specimens neon-24 (t1/2 = 3.38 min) and bismuth-211 (t1/2 = 2.14 min) of equal mass, which one would have greater activity and why? The damage can also be done indirectly, by first ionizing H2O (the most abundant molecule in living organisms), which forms a H2O+ ion that reacts with water, forming a hydronium ion and a hydroxyl radical: Because the hydroxyl radical has an unpaired electron, it is highly reactive. Low doses spread out over long periods of time dont cause an immediate problem to any body organ. We tend to think of the effects of radiation in terms of how it impacts living cells. It also interferes with the communication of the cells of living beings. extremely reactive. Abstract : The study of human exposure to radiofrequency/microwave (RF/MW) radiation has been the subject of widespread investigation and analysis. A lot of our exposure is due to radon, a gas from the Earth's crust that is present in the air we breathe. Health effects of short-term exposure to radiation are shown in Table \(\PageIndex{2}\). Low Dose Radiation. We can minimize the effects of radiation by shielding with dense materials such as lead, moving away from the source of radiation, and limiting time of exposure. Biological Effects of Radiation discusses the interaction of ionizing radiation with biological systems and how this affects the integrity of cellular proteins, including DNA. They are more penetrating than alpha particles. Exposure to radiation can cause a wide range of health effects, from minor to severe, including death. Note that the list below gives gives exposures which vary by a factor of 10 million. Every part of your body consists of cells or was built by them. This takes into account both the energy and the biological effects of the type of radiation involved in the . For example, a typical course of radiation therapy exposes the cancerous tissue to 50,000 mSv; when given as a single dose or using an accelerated schedule considerably lower total absorbed doses result in the same biological effect. Ionizing radiation (or ionising radiation), including nuclear radiation, consists of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that have sufficient energy to ionize atoms or molecules by detaching electrons from them. All three kinds of radiation are potentially hazardous to living tissue, but some more than others, as will be explained later on. One study found no evidence that radiation exposure to parents resulted in new genetic . Scientists also found that thyroid cancers arising after radiation exposure were more likely to have certain types of DNA damage. SY4 5JX. These effects are generally acute or subacute, occurring within hours to weeks. an ionization chamber, can be used to measure low-level radiation exposures. Syllabus: Dental Radiology destabilize other molecules and generate more free Some high-energy gamma radiation is able to pass through a few feet of concrete. The relative risk from ionizing radiation is greater for some types of cancers than other types and it varies with the age at which a person is exposed. The SI unit for measuring radiation dose is the gray (Gy), with 1 Gy = 1 J of energy absorbed per kilogram of tissue. Although biological systems are sensitive to heat (as we might know from touching a hot stove or spending a day at the beach in the sun), a large amount of nonionizing radiation is necessary before dangerous levels are reached. This radiation can affect living organisms. with RBE approximately 10 for radiation, 2(+) for protons and neutrons, and 1 for and radiation. In practice, this sensitivity is represented by the tissue weighting factor, wT, which is the factor by which the equivalent dose in a tissue or organ T is weighted to represent the relative contribution of that tissue or organ to the total health detriment resulting from uniform irradiation of the body (ICRP 1991b). This means beta particles tend to damage more cells, but with lesser damage to each. An older unit, radiation absorbed dose (rad = erg/g), times 100 is equal to one gray (100 rad = Gy). The various sources and their relative amounts are shown in this bar graph. The radon gas that is produced slowly escapes from the ground and gradually seeps into homes and other structures above. What remains controversial is the nature of these effects. These effects are call deterministic effects; the effective dose determines if the effect will or will not occur. molecules. If this tissue forms a specialised functional unit, it is called an organ. DOE Fundamentals Handbook,Volume 1 and 2. The radon enters through cracks in concrete foundations and basement floors, stone or porous cinderblock foundations, and openings for water and gas pipes. cell death or altered metabolism and function. An older unit, the curie (Ci), is equal to 37,000,000,000 Bq; the millicurie (mCi) is equal to 37,000,000 Bq. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. This is why patients undergoing radiation therapy often feel nauseous or sick to their stomach, lose hair, have bone aches, and so on, and why particular care must be taken when undergoing radiation therapy during pregnancy. In radiobiology, the dose rate is a measure of radiation dose intensity (or strength). Ultraviolet - Sources Sun light Most harmful UV is absorbed by the atmosphere - depends on altitude Fluorescent lamps Electric arc welding Can damage the eye (cornea) Germicidal lamps Eye damage from sun light Skin cancer Ultraviolet - Effects High ultraviolet - kills bacterial and other infectious agents High dose causes - sun burn - increased Cherenkov imaging is a valuable cancer treatment tool that can help doctors track and monitor radiation doses received by tissues during cancer therapy in real time. Some high-energy gamma radiation is able to pass through a few feet of concrete. A measure of the risk of biological harm is the dose of radiation that the tissues receive. A short-term, sudden dose of a large amount of radiation can cause a wide range of health effects, from changes in blood chemistry to death. Cancer would be about five times more likely than a genetic effect. the right has been damaged by different types Effects of Radiation by Biological Organization 17 -Damage to cell membranes, nucleus, chromosomes etc. Radiation can cause somatic or genetic damage, and is most harmful to rapidly reproducing cells. Colour: Multicoloured. The data show high doses of radiation may cause cancers. These effects are call deterministic effects; the effective dose determines if the effect will or will not occur. Studies have shown that alpha and neutron radiation cause greater biological damage for a given energy deposition per kg of tissue than gamma radiation does. Biological Effects of Exposure to Radiation Radiation can harm either the whole body (somatic damage) or eggs and sperm (genetic damage). Ionizing radiation is a type of radiation that has sufficient energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms, creating ions. Biological Effects of Exposure to Radiation Radiation can harm either the whole body (somatic damage) or eggs and sperm (genetic damage). This is because the living tissue can more easily repair damage from radiation that is spread over a large area than that which is concentrated in a small area. In short, the biological damage from high-LET radiation ( alpha particles , protons , or neutrons) is much greater than that from low-LET radiation ( gamma rays ). BEIR VII focuses on the health effects of low levels of low linear energy transfer (low-LET) ionizing radiation such as x-rays and gamma rays. Potassium has a tiny fraction of naturally occurring radioactive potassium-40. ISBN: 978-2759800414. By the end of this section, you will be able to: The increased use of radioisotopes has led to increased concerns over the effects of these materials on biological systems (such as humans). Such changes may not be seen for many years or even decades after exposure. The electron-volt (abbreviated eV) is a unit of energy associated with moving electrons around. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. Stochastic effects include cancers in exposed individuals due to somatic cell mutations and genetic effects in . The somatic include early and delayed effects (cancer) Deterministic (non-stochastic) effects . The effects of radiation on the cell. Section Summary. Some consumer products such as tobacco, fertilizer, welding rods, exit signs, luminous watch dials and smoke detectors contribute about 10 mrem per year. However, if the linear, no-threshold assumption is correct, then even low-level exposure of the whole US population would result in stochastic effects in an important number of people. Genetic effects and cancer are the primary health concerns from radiation exposure. capable of engaging in rapid chain reactions that destabilize other molecules and generate more free radicals. Future effects. Other effects either occur or do not occur, but the severity of the effect is not related to the effective dose. Low doses may damage or alter a cell's genetic code, or DNA. Ionizing radiation can (a) directly damage a biomolecule by ionizing it or breaking its bonds, or (b) create an H. The ability of different types of radiation to pass through material is shown. For many people, one of the largest sources of exposure to radiation is from radon gas (Rn-222). These effects often occur over a lifetime. This high level of concentration allows radiation therapy of various thyroid disorders with only small affects on other organs. Clarendon Press; 1 edition, 1991, ISBN:978-0198520467, G.R.Keepin. A variety of units are used to measure various aspects of radiation ([link]). Activity=N=(ln 2t1/2)N=(ln 25.26 y)5.00 g=0.659gyof Co60 that decayActivity=N=(ln 2t1/2)N=(ln 25.26 y)5.00 g=0.659gyof Co60 that decay, 0.659gy1 y365 d1 d24 h1 h3600 s1 mol59.9 g6.021023atoms1 mol1 decay1 atom=2.101014decays0.659gy1 y365 d1 d24 h1 h3600 s1 mol59.9 g6.021023atoms1 mol1 decay1 atom=2.101014decays, 2.101014decays(1 Bq1decays)=2.101014Bq2.101014decays(1 Bq1decays)=2.101014Bq, 2.101014decays(1 Ci3.71011decays)=5.7102Ci2.101014decays(1 Ci3.71011decays)=5.7102Ci, The total annual radiation exposure for a person in the US is about 620 mrem. Different types of radiation have differing abilities to pass through material ([link]). Moreover, some studies demonstrate, most of human tissues exhibit a more pronounced tolerance to the effects of low-LET radiation in case of a prolonged exposure compared to a one-time exposure to a similar dose. Devices such as (a) Geiger counters, (b) scintillators, and (c) dosimeters can be used to measure radiation. Exposure to radioactive emissions has a cumulative effect on the body during a persons lifetime, which is another reason why it is important to avoid any unnecessary exposure to radiation. Obviously, there is also concern about high-level radiation especially in the range where deterministic effects are likely to occur in each individual. New Street. A scientist is studying a 2.234 g sample of thorium-229 (t1/2 = 7340 y) in a laboratory. Some of the reactions occur quickly, while others occur slowly. This is why patients undergoing radiation therapy often feel nauseous or sick to their stomach, lose hair, have bone aches, and so on, and why particular care must be taken when undergoing radiation therapy during pregnancy. The linear no-threshold model is based on biological responses at high radiation doses and dose rates. This hydroxyl radical can react with all kinds of biological molecules (DNA, proteins, enzymes, and so on), causing damage to the molecules and disrupting physiological processes. The regulatory assumption for doses less than 100 mSv is that stochastic effects are linearly related to the effective dose and that there is no threshold below which they do not occur, the linear, no-threshold assumption. As shown in [link], the average person is exposed to background radiation, including cosmic rays from the sun and radon from uranium in the ground (see the Chemistry in Everyday Life feature on Radon Exposure); radiation from medical exposure, including CAT scans, radioisotope tests, X-rays, and so on; and small amounts of radiation from other human activities, such as airplane flights (which are bombarded by increased numbers of cosmic rays in the upper atmosphere), radioactivity from consumer products, and a variety of radionuclides that enter our bodies when we breathe (for example, carbon-14) or through the food chain (for example, potassium-40, strontium-90, and iodine-131). There is concern even about very low levels of ionizing radiation. Lower frequency, lower-energy electromagnetic radiation is nonionizing, and higher frequency, higher-energy electromagnetic radiation is ionizing. While measurement of external radiation exposure is relatively simple, measurement of internal radiation exposure is much more complicated. A 1991 study by the National Cancer Institute, "Cancer in Populations Living Near Nuclear Facilities," concluded that there was no increased risk of death from cancer for people living in counties adjacent to U.S. nuclear facilities. Cancers associated with high-dose exposure (greater than 50,000 mrem, or 500 mSv500 times the NRC limit to the public) include leukemia, breast, bladder, colon, liver, lung, esophagus, ovarian, multiple myeloma and stomach cancers. The biological effects of ionizing radiation vary with the type and energy. Measurement of external radiation exposure is more complicated than is immediately apparent, but in the context of this description reasonably accurate measures are millisievert per hour (mSv/h) and microsievert per hour (Sv/h), where (Sv/h = 0.001 mSv/h). Radon is the number one cause of lung cancer in nonsmokers and the second leading cause of lung cancer overall. Radiation biology is the study of the biological effects of ionizing radiation. Effects are also classified into somatic and hereditary. The sievert (Sv) is generally used for describing therapy doses; the millisievert (mSv = 0.001 Sv) is generally used for describing radiological doses; the microsievert (Sv = 0.000001 Sv) is used for very-low level doses. Cobalt-60 (t1/2 = 5.26 y) is used in cancer therapy since the \(\gamma\) rays it emits can be focused in small areas where the cancer is located. Several different devices are used to detect and measure radiation, including Geiger counters, scintillation counters (scintillators), and radiation dosimeters (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)). Nuclear and Particle Physics. Since the incidence is described using stochastic methods (probability and statistics), these effects are called stochastic effects. Radon is found in buildings across the country, with amounts depending on where you live. Knoll, Glenn F.,Radiation Detection and Measurement 4th Edition,Wiley,8/2010. One becquerel is an extremely small quantity of radioactivity. Probably the best-known radiation instrument, the Geiger counter (also called the Geiger-Mller counter) detects and measures radiation. The curie (Ci) and millicurie (mCi) are much larger units and are frequently used in medicine (1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 1010 disintegrations per second). Note that the tissue damage units (rem or Sv) includes the energy of the radiation dose (rad or Gy), along with a biological factor referred to as the RBE (for relative biological effectiveness), that is an approximate measure of the relative damage done by the radiation. All living things are composed of one or more cells. The alpha and beta radiation consist of actual matter that shoots off the atom, while gamma rays are electromagnetic waves. Radon is the number one cause of lung cancer in nonsmokers and the second leading cause of lung cancer overall. Radon exposure is believed to cause over 20,000 deaths in the US per year. These effects can result from a mutation in the cells of an exposed person that are passed on to their children. As a result, living cells can be classified according to their rate of reproduction, which also indicates their relative sensitivity to radiation. High doses of radiation could also lead to cancer later in life. As shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\), the average person is exposed to background radiation, including cosmic rays from the sun and radon from uranium in the ground (see the Chemistry in Everyday Life feature on Radon Exposure); radiation from medical exposure, including CAT scans, radioisotope tests, X-rays, and so on; and small amounts of radiation from other human activities, such as airplane flights (which are bombarded by increased numbers of cosmic rays in the upper atmosphere), radioactivity from consumer products, and a variety of radionuclides that enter our bodies when we breathe (for example, carbon-14) or through the food chain (for example, potassium-40, strontium-90, and iodine-131). Exposure to radiation can cause a wide range of health effects, from minor to severe, and including death. Its effects are more pronounced in cells that reproduce rapidly, such as the stomach lining, hair follicles, bone marrow, and embryos. These devices are sensitive enough to measure normal background radiation and natural sources of radiation. When ionizing radiation causes significant disturbances in the function of the cell or cell death, the effects are deterministic: They can lead to a change in the functioning of individual body. The roentgen equivalent for man (rem) is the unit for radiation damage that is used most frequently in medicine (1 rem = 1 Sv). The nerve and muscle cells are the slowest to regenerate and are the least sensitive cells. W. M. Stacey, Nuclear Reactor Physics, John Wiley & Sons, 2001, ISBN: 0- 471-39127-1. Acute doses below 250 mGy are unlikely to have any observable effects. In medical applications, the radiation absorbed dose (rad) is more often used (1 rad = 0.01 Gy; 1 rad results in the absorption of 0.01 J/kg of tissue). Either by targeted effects on irradiated cells or bystander effects on un-irradiated cells, biological effects from low-dose irradiation do occur. will cause internal radiation exposure. However, since large amounts of potassium iodine have important side effects in a small number of people, it should only be used when a significant exposure to radioiodine is expected (see http://interactive.snm.org/docs/hpra/Radiation_Risk_Joint_Statement_FINAL_Letterhead.pdf). When this radiation encounters living cells, it can cause heating, break chemical bonds, or ionize molecules. If so, give us a like in the sidebar. 2. Other deterministic effects at lower radiation doses include: Birth defects at doses at or above about 10-20 rad (0.1-0.2 Gy) to the embryo/fetus. The effects can be classified into early or deterministic, which have a threshold, and delayed or stochastic, with no threshold. For example, a 10 mSv gamma dose to the whole body and a 50 mSv dose to the thyroid is the same, in terms of risk, as a whole-body dose of 10 + 0.04 x 50 = 12 mSv. Scientists have found it affects enzyme reactions that conduct fundamental biological functions, it impairs cellular division in developing sea urchin eggs, and it changes the movements and orientation of tiny organisms as they move through ocean waters. Biological Effects of Radiation can be broken into two groups according to how the responses (symptoms or effects) relate to dose (or amount of radiation received).Radiation can also affect. For ionizing radiation, the kinetic energy of particles (photons, electrons, etc.) This period can be many years. J. R. Lamarsh, A. J. Baratta, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 3d ed., Prentice-Hall, 2001, ISBN: 0-201-82498-1. However, if the cell is unable to repair the damage, it usually dies by targeted programmed cell . Bananas are a good source of potassium, an essential nutrient. Examples of direct and indirect damage are shown in [link]. The unit of absorbed radiation dose is the sievert (Sv). As a result, life has evolved in the presence of significant levels of ionizing radiation. There is an effective dose below which these effects are rarely seen and an effective dose above which they are almost always seen. Dose rate is a measure of radiation dose intensity (or strength). After alteration, a cell can be repaired through the body's Commonly used types are electronic, film badge, thermoluminescent, and quartz fiber dosimeters. We are constantly exposed to radiation from a variety of naturally occurring and human-produced sources. It can also affect the fertility of a living being. For example, alpha and beta particles emitted from nuclear decay reactions possess much higher energies than ordinary chemical bond energies. How can I protect myself if I'm in an affected area? It was discovered, biological effects of any radiation increases with the linear energy transfer (LET). Because of this, alpha particle sources are usually not dangerous if outside the body, but are quite hazardous if ingested or inhaled (see the Chemistry in Everyday Life feature on Radon Exposure). We use several units to measure radiation: becquerels or curies for rates of radioactive decay; gray or rads for energy absorbed; and rems or sieverts for biological effects of radiation. Effects on organs of the body (somatic effects) A wide variety of reactions occur in response to irradiation in the different organs and tissues of the body. Effects of skin include (reddening like sunburn), dry (peeling), and moist (blistering). An original article from th. DNA Replication 14. Therefore, biological effects of radiation are typically divided into two categories. As was written, each type of radiation interacts with matter in a different way. Some foods such as bananas and Brazil nuts naturally contain higher levels of radiation. Low-level doses are common in everyday life. radicals. It is impossible to avoid some exposure to ionizing radiation. Radiation can harm either the whole body (somatic damage) or eggs and sperm (genetic damage). Radiation causes the ionization of the gas in a Geiger-Mller tube. Biological Effects of Exposure to Radiation Radiation can harm either the whole body (somatic damage) or eggs and sperm (genetic damage). This takes into account both the energy and the biological effects of the type of radiation involved in the radiation dose. There is a large difference in the magnitude of the biological effects of nonionizing radiation (for example, light and microwaves) and ionizing radiation, emissions energetic enough to knock electrons out of molecules (for example, and particles, rays, X-rays, and high-energy ultraviolet radiation) ([link]). Robert Reed Burn, Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Operation, 1988. Simple inexpensive equipment, e.g. This chapter briefly summarizes the short and long term consequences which may result from exposure to radiation. The harmful effects of radiation are mentioned below as follows: It can damage the chromosomal DNA of a living being. And natural sources of exposure to parents resulted in new genetic, type... Our status page at https: //status.libretexts.org on un-irradiated cells, it is very important distinguish! Effects and cancer are the primary health concerns from radiation exposure were more likely than a effect. Are passed on to their children a scientist is studying a 2.234 g sample of thorium-229 ( t1/2 7340! Radiofrequency/Microwave ( RF/MW ) radiation has been the subject of widespread investigation and analysis like sunburn ), (... Harm is the study of human exposure to radiation are typically divided into categories. 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Very important to distinguish between doses received over short and extended periods fraction of naturally occurring and sources... Us per year deaths in the tendency to produce ionization dosimeters also measure ionizing radiation with... Especially high-level exposures received over short and extended periods affected area relative amounts are shown in [ link ). Of DNA damage could lead too: - death during next division - non-fatal mutation What... Are typically divided into two categories gradually seeps into homes and other structures above, energy, and of... \ ( \PageIndex { 2 } \ ), A. j. Baratta, Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Physics, Wiley... Term consequences which may result from a variety of naturally occurring radioactive potassium-40 by Organization! Consequences depends strongly on the type used for the treatment of cancer time of exposure 17 -Damage cell! Is always present is known as `` background '' radiation are generally acute or subacute, within...
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